English Lessons: Clauses

1. Adjective Clauses
Adjective clauses are also called relative clauses. They come after nouns and modify them. In other words, they tell the listener or reader more about the person or thing that the noun refer to. The pronouns that often begin adjective clauses are called relative pronouns ( that, which, who, whom, whose, where) For example:
A person who sweeps the floor on buildings is known as janitor.
A person who sails is a sailor.
The man who sold the red house is a friend of mine.
2. Reducing Adjective Clauses to Adjective Phrases

If the subject relative pronoun is followed by the verb be in any tense, both the relative pronoun and the verb be can be omitted. For example:
The realtor who is selling the house is Ann.--> The realtor who is selling the house is Ann.
The garment that is worn by priests is usually white.-> The garment that is worn by priests is usually white.
3. Relative pronouns as objects

The object relative pronouns for people are who, whom, that. Whom is more formal than who. The object relative pronouns for things are which, that. For example:
The candidate who more votes gets become the president.
The first time that I voted was in 1982.
You may omit the relative pronoun in restricted adjective clauses. For example:
The first time I voted was in 1982.
4. Restricted/Nonrestricted Relative Clauses

The two main types of adjective clauses--restrictive and nonrestrictive-- have distinct meanings and uses.
A restrictive adjective clause gives information that helps to uniquely identify the noun that it describes. For example:
My sister who attends KU is very shy. (I have two sisters. one attends KU , the other doesn't)

A Nonrestrictive adjective clause, on the other hand, adds extra information about the noun it modifies. This information is not necessary to identify the noun. For example:
Mary, who attends KU, is very shy.
Summary

1. Adjective Clauses
   "The woman who is dressed in red is my mother"
2. Adjective Phrases
   "The woman dressed in red is my mother."
3. Restrictive /Nonrestrictive Relative Clauses
   "My brother who is 10 years old starts working today." (restrictive)
   "My brother, who is 10 years old, starts working today." (nonrestrictive)

1. Noun Clauses as Subjects

Noun clauses are that clauses that have a subject and a verb. There is no comma between the main clause and the that clause. For example:
That several students came late to class annoyed the professor.
The fact that you are from South America made you ideal for the job.
It is common in speaking to move the noun clause to the end of the sentence and to put it in the subject position e.g. It annoyed the teacher that Albert smoked in class.
2. Noun Clauses as Objects

In this case, the word that is put before the clause, but it is not required e.g. The teacher reported that Albert smoked in class. or The teacher reported that Albert smoked in class.
3. Noun Clauses made from Questions

Questions can made into noun clauses and become subjects and objects. Noun clauses that are made from information question usually begin with the question word when, who, why, etc. e.g. Amanda wondered why Nick broke up with her.// It is a mystery why Nick broke up with Amanda.
Noun clauses that are made from yes-no questions begin with if, whether e.g. Amanda wonders if Nick will talk to her again. it is unknown whether the weather will be warm or rainy.
4. Reported Speech- Pronouns

We can tell about what someone said in two ways. We can use the exact words of the speaker or writer. This is called quoted speech. We must put quotations marks at the beginning and at the end of the quote. For example:
"I don't like your attitude," Joanna said to Jill.
Another way to tell about what someone said is to change the quote into a noun phrase. This is called reported speech. For example:
Jill said that it wasn't his fault.
5. Reported Speech-Statements

The most common verbs used to report statements are say and tell. When tell is used in reporting speech, it is always followed by a noun or a pronoun indicating the person spoken to. For example:
Mike said that we were going to the beach on the weekend.
Mike told us that we were going to the beach on the weekend.
Other reported speech verbs commonly used are: add, admit, claim, declare, explain, indicate, mention, observe, state, reply, point out, etc.
it is important to note that if a statement was put into reported speech, the reporting verb is usually in the simple past and the verb in the reported statement is usually changed to a past tense.

Simple past         =======> simple past
present progressive =======> past progressive
present perfect     =======> past perfect
will                =======> would
can                 =======> could
6. Reported Speech- Questions

Yes/No questions in reported speech begin with the word if or whether. Information questions (Who, what, etc.) in reported speech begin with the question word and also use the statement word order.
The most common verb to report questions is ask. For example:
"Is the fire under control?" (Mike to John)
Mike asked John if the fire was under control.
"How did you pass the test?" Mary to Pete.
Mary asked Pete how he had past the test.
7. Reported Speech-Imperatives
 

When we report orders, suggestions, or requests, we can use a verb like tell, order, request, ask, warn, urge plus a noun or pronoun followed by an infinitive. For example:
"Drive carefully," the man said to Cris.
The man told Cris to drive carefully.
"Don't touch the art works," the teacher warned the kids.
The teacher warned the kids not to touch the art works.

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